Safety of Women Essay Example for Free

Safety of Women Essay It is crucial that probation officers develop a familiarity with the needs and safety concerns of women who are abused, and become aware of the risks women face while on probation supervision. For example, an abuser may use the probation condition as another way to abuse her by threatening to falsely allege a probation violation to her probation officer, or by forcing her to commit an illegal act and then reporting it (Crager et al., 2003). When a probation officer learns that a woman probationer is abused, the officer should apply the same principles for working with women who are not probationers (NYS PDVIP, 2005). If a woman who is abused has not had contact with domestic violence programs, probation officers can play a key role in providing information and referrals to domestic violence services. A probation officer may be the first person that has ever said to her: You dont deserve to be abused. Its not your fault, and theres nothing you have done to cause the abuse. Probation officers have a responsibility to reassure women that they are not alone with their experiences: Im concerned about you, and when you are ready, help is available. When probation officers provide referrals, it is crucial to understand that her potential reluctance or unwillingness to take hotline/advocate contact information may be related to a concern for her own safety. Her abuser may be waiting for her in the parking lot, go through her purse or pockets, and use that domestic violence program contact number as a reason to continue and/or escalate his abuse (NYSCADV, 2004b). It is also important for probation officers to take their cues from women who are abused as to what their abusers actions mean. For example, an abuser may have made statements to indicate that a womans risk is high (i.e. The next flowers youll get will be when you are in the ground). Probation officers can also assist women in identifying and understanding dangerous and potentially illegal stalking behaviors including unwanted phone calls, letters, gifts, flowers, email, instant messages, or faxes. A stalker may also follow her or show up at places she frequents (home, work, school, etc.), make verbal, written, or implied threats directed at her, her friends or family, or vandalize her property. More extreme acts of stalking may also include assaults or other acts of violence, including sexual assault, directed at her, an immediate family member, or someone she knows (NYSCADV, 2004b). Probation officers support the safety of women by providing referrals to domestic violenceprograms to assist with completing a safety plan. If a woman chooses not to contact a domestic violence advocate, probation officers can help her review her risks and create a preliminary safety plan (See Appendix B for considerations for developing a preliminary safety plan), including asking about weapons available to the offender, as well as his access to the children (NYSCADV, 2004b). Regardless of the level of offense or conviction, probation officers should refrain from minimizing the abusers potential to inflict serious physical injury. All domestic violence cases should be considered as potential homicides, particularly during separation or after a woman who is abused terminates the relationship (NYS PDVIP, 2005). Probation officers are also becoming aware of the potential for collusion with abusers who are not under supervision. These abusers may attempt to become an ally of probation o fficers in order to maintain power and control over the woman who is abused. To counter these attempts at coercion, probation is increasingly conducting Pre-Sentence Investigations (PSIs) in all domestic violence cases. If there are insufficient resources to do this in all cases, PSIs should be conducted on any case where the defendant may have a history of victimization by the alleged victim in the presenting case. The PSI should include specific questions about the history of victimization and power and control dynamics in the relationship (NYS PDVIP, 2005) (See Appendix C for a list of general guidelines for probation officers who supervise women who are abused). Additional strategies for supervising women who are abused include the following: 1. Know and follow the departmental confidentiality policy regarding use of information about the woman who is abused, including her contact information. Inform the woman who is abused of the policy at first contact, and again as necessary throughout the supervision process. It is important for her to understand what will happen with any and all information she may provide to her probation officer (e.g., Will it be written in her case file? Will a supervisor see it? Will it be submitted to the judge in a report? Will her abuser or his attorney have access to it?) 2. Create a safe environment for women who are abused to disclose their experiences of abuse if they choose. Consider displaying domestic violence posters in the probation department and have local domestic violence program brochures and pamphlets available as a visible way to show that the officer and the department take domestic violenceseriously. 3. Explain the terms of the Orders and Conditions of Probation, the role of a probation officer, and any additional relevant agency policies. Fully explain the consequences of violations of the Orders and Conditions of Probation, and other probationer obligations. 4. Assure the woman who is abused that she is not responsible for her abusers behavior. The choice to abuse rests only with the abuser. 5. Do not use her abuser as a collateral contact. This may unintentionally reinforce and validate his power and control over her and introduce unreliable information to her case. 6. It is essential to understand that the decisions women make may be based on critical survival strategies. Women who are abused are constantly evaluating their risks, and from day to day their needs and safety concerns may vary. 7. Ask the woman who is abused to identify how to contact her in a way that supports her safety. Do not initiate contact with the woman who is abused while her abuser is present. 8. Ensur e that the woman who is abused has contact information for the local domestic violence program. Assist her in identifying her safety concerns. 9. Discuss safety issues for the probation officer and the woman who is abused that may impact home contacts, fieldwork, or collateral contacts (e.g., if the abuser lives with the woman who is abused, schedule a home contact with her when the abuser is not at home). 10. Address other needs of women who are abused including employment, childcare, housing issues, substance abuse treatment, etc. 11. Do not promise the woman who is abused any thing you may not be able to deliver. Do not assure her of her safety (NYSCADV, 2003; NYS PDVIP, 2004) (See Appendix D for a checklist for probation contact with victims of domestic violence). Collaboration with Domestic Violence Advocates and Referrals to Domestic Violence Programs. Probation officers are building strong collaborations with domestic violence advocates. As a result, they have a greater comprehension of the dangers that women face, and a broader understanding of choices women make which are grounded in critical survival strategies. The role of advocates, which are employed by traditional domestic violence programs (based in, or linked with, not-for-profit, non-governmental agencies), is defined by the needs and desires of women who are abused. The overarching goals of advocates are to support and bolster womens confidentiality and decisions, and provide them with information. The allegiance of advocates lies solely with women who are abused, which is distinct from victim-witness liaisons (also sometimes referred to as advocates) that may be employed by district attorneys offices, law enforcement agencies, and other system-based programs. In fact, advocates may be called upon to represent the interests of women who are abused to other persons and/or agencies. Advocates and domestic violence programs are a major resource for probation officers and departments and vice versa, and this interdependent relationship should be encouraged, strengthened, and formalized as a necessary part of a coordinated community response to domestic violence. Advocate-probation collaborations can strengthen cases and significantly support safety of women in many ways. Advocates can assist with explaining the p robation process, help women who are abused understand what probation officers and departments do, and review probation documents and paperwork with women who are abused. In addition, advocates can help prepare women who are abused for meetings with probation, and may be able to attend meetings to provide additional support (NYS PDVIP, 2004, NYS PDVIP, 2005)[3]. Probation officers can minimize the potentially dangerous repercussions of unintended consequences of supervision practices, by developing and maintaining collaborations with advocates regarding safety issues. Thus, interventions implemented by probation officers can focus on helping women who are abused explore and evaluate available options, make informed decisions, design preliminary safety plans that reflect womens needs and goals, and facilitate voluntary involvement in domestic violence services (State of New York, 1998). At every opportunity, probation officers should make available hotline numbers, contact information, and descriptions of locally available domestic violence programs and services to women who are abused. However, seeking help from a domestic violence program, getting an order of protection, or deciding to leave an abuser only makes sense to a woman when, on balance, it reduces the overall risks that she and her children face. Victim safety should remain paramo unt when there may be competing interests or a perceived benefit of a program, policy, protocol, or procedure. Achieving this goal requires a supervision plan that incorporates the many  obstacles and risks to achieving safety or to ending a relationship with an abusive partner that women who are abused encounter. Domestic violence programs focus on empowerment, autonomy, and self-determination, and mandating participation in any program or service contradicts this philosophy (Crager et al., 2003). Mandating women who are abused to domestic violence services also places advocates in the incongruent role of monitoring compliance with probation conditions (Denton, 2001). Considerations for Dual Probation Supervision of Women Who are Abused and Their Abusers When women who are abused and their abusers are both under supervision by probation, a heightened level of confidentiality and a stringent safety protocol must be maintained within the department. Regardless of who is or is not identified by the criminal justice system as the abuser, probation officers should continue to implement practices that support the safety of women who are abused. Probation officers are well trained to be wary of probationers and their many tactics at getting-over. This skill is especially key when supervising domestic violence offenders, as abusers not only excel at this endeavor, but use it as a strategy directly related to their abuse and to their mindset. Although many convicted criminals may believe themselves to be victims, men who are abusers tend to be particularly insistent about their perceived victimization. Historically, men who abused were protected by traditions of privacy and privilege surrounding marriage and the family. While social values an d laws are changing pertaining to abuse in intimate relationships, many men who abuse express a sense of intrusion and injustice, and feel that they have had something taken away, or that their rights have been abridged. Probation officers need to exercise care not to say or do anything that could be interpreted as agreeing with the abuser including even the most casual of comments or nodding of the head. Invariably, abusers will use that perceived support to minimize and justify their behaviors or to corroborate their negative assumptions about women (NYS PDVIP, 2004). Similarly, probation officers need to keep the focus on accountability, not on abusers personal or moral deficits, diseases, low self-esteem, early childhood experiences, anger management, diminished intellect, addiction, mental illness, other individuals, or external events as the means to explaining or solving domestic violence. Doing so gives abusers support for the excuses they offer to explain their abusive behavior (State of New York, 1998). General Safety Strategies for Women Who Are Abused During Dual Probation Supervision. General guidelines for probation officers who supervise women who are abused during dual probation situations include the following: 1. Recognize that women who are abused have differing safety needs and concerns than men who are being supervised. In some situations, there may be a need to request a modification of Orders and Conditions of Probation that may negatively impact her safety (e.g. curfew, electronic monitoring, travel permits, and residency reporting may impose additional danger for women who are abused). 2. Do not schedule office interviews with both the woman who is abused and her abuser on the same day. Develop a schedule of meeting times and dates in conjunction with the other supervising officer. 3. It is essential that different probation officers supervise the woman who is abused and her abuser. This minimizes opportunities for breeches in confidentiality and reduces the potential for collusion with the abuser. 4. If case reviews are routinely conducted with other probation officers and supervisors, exercise extreme caution in discussing case details which may put a woman who is abused at risk. While challenging, limit the access of other officers and supervisors as much as feasible to the case file of the woman who is abused. Discussing the details of her case with other probation officers may result in information getting to her abuser, with potentially significant repercussions for her safety. 5. Do not make negative statements about the abuser during supervision of a woman who is abused (NYSCADV, 2003; NYS PDVIP, 2005). For example, comments such as hes such a lousy husband or hes a real jerk interject value judgments into the supervision process that can significantly detract from perceptions of probation officers and their ability to maintain a professional demeanor. R ather, the context of the abusers behaviors and actions should be focused on her safety. Additional Safety Strategies for Women Who Are Abused During Supervision of Their Abusers. General guidelines for the supervision of abusers include the following: 1. The safety of the woman who is abused is the chief concern. 2. The abuser is responsible for his behavior. There is no acceptable justification for his violence, no matter what he says or how much he blames her. Address every attempt of abusers to deny, minimize, justify, or blame abuse on anything other than their own personal choice. 3. Neutralize the abusers attempts to manipulate officers or control probation proceedings. Avoid any situation that could lead to unintentionally colluding with the abuser. 4. Whenever possible, probation officers should use sources of information, other than the woman who is abused, to enforce accountability of abusers who are also on probation. If a probation officer does include input from a woman who is abused, it is crucial for the probation officer to explain to her, realistically, what may happen with the information that she provides regarding her abusers case. Thus, the probation officer should specifically inquire about information that the woman who is abused can provide about her abuser without putting her at increased risk. 5. The probation officer should clearly describe to the woman who is abused how violations of probation are handled and what sanctions may be imposed on her abuser. 6. Safekeeping of the contact information for the woman who is abused is always a priority. Her contact information should always be kept out of sight when the abuser is in the office. If possible, putting the contact information for the woman who is abused in a different colored file or using a piece of colored tape on the file can be an easy way to remind probation officers of the heightened need to keep the information confidential. 7. In addition, probation department policy should require that probation officers notify a woman who is abused at least one month before her abuser is discharged from supervision. This will provide an opportunity for her to identify any safety concerns and request appropriate referrals from her probation officer (NYSCADV, 2003; NYS PDVIP, 2005). Considerations for Court Ordered Referrals That Are Dangerous Increasingly, the criminal justice system and the courts are tapping into a wider range of program and referral options and sanctions as responses to domestic violence cases. While many commonly used interventions, referrals, and services are safe and appropriate for many individuals; probation officers need to recognize that several of these same practices are dangerous and inappropriate for women who are abused. In addition to the increased danger these practices may create, they may also reinforce the notion that a woman who is abused shares responsibility for her partners violent and/or controlling behavior. Such a message reinforces the mistaken belief of most abusers: women who are abused are to blame for the violence. Thus, it also encourages women who are abused to internalize responsibility for their partners violence and has the potential to increase the likelihood that the abuser will physically or emotionally harm his partner (NYSCADV, 2004b). Safety Considerations for Batterer Program Referrals. The Violence Against Women Offices Toolkit to End Violence Against Women recommends that the justice system avoid ordering victims of domestic violence to participate in batterer programs (VAWO, 2001). There are many practical and philosophical problems associated with court-ordering a woman who is abused to participate in a batterer program. If she was acting in self-defense or to protect her children, or was using violence in retaliation for abuse, the court order is, in effect, punishment for being abused. Most women who are abused are not batterers, even when they have used violence proactively. While the content of a program for female offenders may be helpful to some women, the batterer label written into the court order is generally inaccurate (Crager et al., 2003). Participation in a batterer program places a woman who is abused in greater danger. For example, when a program notifies the alleged victim (in actuality, the real batterer) of the womans participation in the batte rer program, he can learn where and when he can find her. Batterer program staffs have described instances in which women who are abused have been stalked by their abusers every time they attended their court-ordered batterer program. Mandatory participation in batterer programs by women who are abused also creates opportunities for batterers to sabotage the womens compliance with the court order by interfering with their attendance, or reporting false allegations of new acts of violence (Crager et al., 2003). Andy Klein, former chief probation officer for the Quincy, MA court and nationally known author on probation, criminal justice, and domestic violence, also commented on the use of batterer programs for women: | |If we really want to offer our services to female batterers, there are better ways to reach them than | | | |to rely on the coercive powers of a criminal justice system that too often gets it wrong in separating| | | |out batterers from victims. If the prosecutor or judge asks you to assist the court by offering | | | |batterer intervention programs for womenjust say NO. Offer, instead, to help train officers, | | | |prosecutors, and judges on how to arrest, prosecute, and sanction wisely (Klein, 2001, p. 2). | | | |Andy Klein | Safety Considerations for Mediation and Couples Counseling Referrals. Intervention strategies that require cooperative participation typically assume an equal relationship in which both parties are free to openly participate. Mediation, for example, is a process through which equal parties are engaged in negotiations to resolve a conflict. Because of the inherent imbalance of power between an abuser and a woman who is abused, mediation and couples counseling are inappropriate in domestic violence cases. A victim of domestic violence who, by definition, is being controlled by her partner is significantly compromised in her ability to negotiate freely and is not on an equal footing with her partner. Women who are abused may also be encouraged to alter their behavior so that they do not provoke their partners into abusing them, thus, holding the victims accountable for the abuse. Any focus on placating the abuser diverts resources or interventions away from safety and accountability. Also, many women report being threatened or assaulted after joint intake or counseling sessions for things they said or did during the session (Frank Golden, 2002; National Institute of Corrections [NIC], 2001; NYS PDVIP, 2003a; State of New York, 1998). Safety Considerations for Restorative Justice Practices. Community and restorative justice practices, which can be effectively used in conjunction with property and juvenile crimes, may not always be restorative or appropriate for women who are abused. As an understanding of power and control and the dynamics of domestic violence are not reflected in many restorative justice practices, they are dangerous for domestic violence cases. Conferencing (also known as Family Group Conferencing) routinely requires women who are abused to have face-to-face visits with their abusers. Also, communities may change agreement plans if they see abusers are having problems with implementing them, thus creating the potential for abusers to manipulate consequences and avoid accountability for the crimes they committed (NIC, 2001; NYS PDVIP, 2003a). Circles (also known as Sentencing, Healing, Peacemaking, or Community Circles) primarily use negotiation, mediation, consensus building, and conflict resolution tactics that, because of power differences between t he abuser and the woman who is abused, are dangerous and inappropriate. Also, responsibilities are often inappropriately assigned to women who are abused and their support groups, and outcomes are often focused on an increased community capacity to resolve disputes (NIC, 2001; NYS PDVIP, 2003a). Safety Considerations for Routine Mental Health Assessments. Domestic violence is not the result of a mental health issue, nor does a woman who is abused, typically, have a mental illness. The rate of mental illness among women who are abused is no higher than that of the general population, and mental illness on the part of the woman who is abused is generally not the cause of the violence. When a woman who is abused has no related mental health issues, an assessment implies that the womans status as a victim of domestic violence is in some way connected with a mental health problem. Thus, women who are abused should only be referred for mental health assessments for reasons that are not connected to the abuse. Few mental health providers have specific training in assessing for domestic violence or in providing supportive services. Like an order to complete a batterer program, an order to complete a mental health assessment can be used against the woman who is abused in a number of ways; for example, it may contribute to losing custody of her children (Crager et al., 2003). Strategies to Respond to Court Ordered Referrals That Are Dangerous. Probation officers have numerous opportunities for teachable moments in which they can educate judges, prosecutors, defense attorneys, police officers, other criminal justice professionals, and community stakeholders about the nature and dynamics of domestic violence, womens use of violence, predominant aggressor identification, and the crucial need to revise criminal justice protocols that re-victimize women who are abused through unintended consequences. In some jurisdictions, probation departments are developing protocols, which prohibit probation officers from mandating or referring women to dangerous practices. When judges refer or mandate women to these practices, the probation departments respond to the judges with an explanation of how the practices are dangerous to women, why the department has restricted use of them, and provides them a copy of the departmental protocol. A strong collaboration with local domestic violence advocates is the cornerstone to a probation response that supports the safety of women who are abused while minimizing the impact of potentially dangerous practices. Advocates are a tremendous source of information and support for probation officers on general domestic violence issues and concerns facing women who are abused, and can provide feedback on proposed policies, referrals, and practices. Conclusion The regrettable influx of women who are abused into the criminal justice system calls for the expert and principled participation of probation officers to promote their safety. Fortunately, probation officers are well positioned to assume this additional responsibility of justice on behalf of women who are abused. At every opportunity, probation officers should make available hotline numbers, contact information, and descriptions of locally available domestic violence programs and services to women who are abused. Victim safety should remain paramount even when there may be competing interests or a perceived benefit of a program, policy, protocol, or procedure. Achieving this goal requires an expansion of traditional notions of probations mandate of offender accountability and public safety. Domestic violence is a complex issue that demands probation officers implement supervision plans that contain strategies for the many obstacles and risks to achieving safety that women who are abused encounter. Tremendous change has been occurring within the criminal justice system regarding transformations in attitudes and beliefs about domestic violence. Increasingly, domestic violence is seen as a serious crime that warrants swift and strong law enforcement, court-based, and correctional responses aimed at holding abusers accountable for their actions. Probation officers are taking on prominent roles in bringing about the social change necessary to challenge domestic violence. Probation is in a unique position to support the safety of women who are abused and reduce the negative impacts of arrest and prosecution of women who are abused as part of a dual arrest for domestic violence, or other crimes. Anytime a probation officer encounters a woman who is abused or her abuser, regardless of who is the probationer, the officer has a crucial role in potentially preventing further domestic violence or even homicide. References Bloom, B., Owen, B., Covington, S. (2003). Gender-responsive strategies: Research, practice, and guiding principles for women offenders. Washington, DC: National Institute of Corrections, U.S. Department of Justice. Crager, M., Cousin, M., Hardy, T. (2003). Victim-defendants: An emerging challenge in responding to domestic violence in Seattle and the King County region. Retrieved May 24, 2004 from http://www.mincava.umn.edu/documents/victimdefendant/victimdefendant.html Dasgupta, S. (2001). Toward an understanding of womens use of non-lethal violence in intimate heterosexual relationships. Retrieved May 24, 2004 from http://www.vawnet.org/DomesticViolence/Research/VAWnetDocs/AR_womviol.php Denton, J. (2001). Options and alternatives for women: Are we re-victimizing women? Women Who Use Force, 20(1), 10-11. Family Violence Prevention Fund. (1999). Cultural considerations in domestic violence cases: A national judges benchbook. San Francisco, CA: Family Violence Prevention Fund. Frank, P., Golden, G. (2002). When 50-50 is not fair: The case against couple counseling when men abuse women. New City, NY: Volunteer Counseling Service of Rockland County, Inc. Klein, A. (2001). Dear readers. National Bulletin on Domestic Violence Prevention, 7(7), 1-2. Miller, S. (2001). The paradox of women arrested for domestic violence. Violence Against Women, 7(12), 1339-1376. Multnomah County Family Violence Coordinating Council. (2002). Battered women offenders in the criminal justice system: Analysis of needs and response for Multnomah County, Oregon. Portland, OR: Multnomah County Family Violence Coordinating Council. National Battered Womens Law Project, National Center on Women and Family Law. (1994). Mandatory arrest: Problems and possibilities. New York, NY : Legal Momentum. National Institute of Corrections. (2001). Restorative justice: Principles, practices, and implementation. Longmont, CO: National Institute of Corrections Academy, U.S. Department of Justice. New York State Coalition Against Domestic Violence. (2003). General guidelines for probation officers who supervise women who are abused. Albany, NY: Author. New York State Coalition Against Domestic Violence. (2004a). Domestic violence handbook. Albany, NY: Author. New York State Coalition Against Domestic Violence. (2004b). Guidelines for the probation response to women who are abused: Supporting victim safety, autonomy, and self-determination. Albany, NY: Author. New York State Probation Domestic Violence Intervention Project. (2003a). Applying restorative and community justice principles to domestic violence cases. Albany, NY: NYS Coalition Against Domestic Violence, NYS Division of Probation and Correctional Alternatives, and NYS Office for the Prevention of Domestic Violence. New York State Probation Domestic Violence Intervention Project. (2003b). Probation response to women convicted of domestic violence. Albany, NY: NYS Coalition Against Domestic Violence, NYS Division of Probation and Correctional Alternatives, and NYS Office for the Prevention of Domestic Violence. New York State Probation Domestic Violence Intervention Project. (2004). New York state model probation policy for domestic violence: Probation domestic violence pre-sentence investigations reports. Albany, NY: NYS Coalition Against Domestic Violence, NYS Division of Probation and Correctional Alternatives, and NYS Office for the Prevention of Domestic Violence. New York State Probation Domestic Violence Intervention Project. (2005). New York state model probation policy for domestic violence: Probation supervision. Albany, NY: NYS Coalition Against Domestic Violence, NYS Division of Probation and Correctional Alternatives, and NYS Office for the Prevention of Domestic Violence. Oregon Council on Crime and Delinquency. (2002, May). Experiences of domestic violence among women on probation or parole in Lane County, Oregon. OCCD Bulletin. Retrieved June 23, 2004 from http://www.occdonline.org/Newsletter/OCCDMay02.pdf State of New York. (1997). Commission on domestic violence fatalities: Report to the governor. Albany, NY: Author. State of New York. (1998). Model domestic violence policy for counties. Albany, NY: New York State Office for the Prevention of Domestic Violence. Violence Against Women Office. (2001). Enhancing the response of the justice system: Criminal remedies. Toolkit to end violence against women. Retrieved May 19, 2004 from http://toolkit.ncjrs.org/vawo_4.html Women in Prison Project, Correctional Association of New York. (2002). Domestic violence survivors in prison fact sheet. Retrieved May 19, 2004 from http://www.correctionalassociation.org/images/Fact_Sheets_2002.pdf Womens Justice Center. (2004). The pivotal role of the criminal justice system in stopping violence against women: Mapping the obstacles to criminal justice for women Part 1. Retrieved May 24, 2004 from http://www.justicewomen.com/handbook/part1_intro.html#pivotal Worcester, N. (2001). Women who use force in heterosexual domestic violence: Putting the context (back in) the picture. Women Who Use Force, 20(1), 2-5, 16-17.

Graphene Oxide (GO) as Antimicrobial Property

Graphene Oxide (GO) as Antimicrobial Property Over the past several years scientists have studied graphene materials (graphene, graphene oxide and reduced graphene oxide) for its antimicrobial properties and its future application in the biomedical field. To date, the exact mechanism for why graphene and its derivatives have antibacterial properties has not been fully understood due to experimental design variables. Scientists have agreed that oxidative stress, phospholipid extraction, and nanoknives all play an important role in the antibacterial properties of graphene materials. There are several techniques such as scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron spectroscopy, and mass spectroscopy that have been used to monitor change in morphology and cell death after exposure to graphene and its derivatives. Through these techniques scientist have been able to confirm that graphene materials are able to promote cellular death in both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, leading to its promising future also in pharma ceuticals. Graphene is a two-dimensional hexagonal structure, consisting of a basal plane (along the surface) and lateral edges, that are made up of sp2 hybridized carbons which form a conjugated à Ã¢â€š ¬ system. This à Ã¢â€š ¬-conjugated system makes graphene very hydrophobic and able to interact with the hydrophobic cell membranes of bacteria. Graphene oxide (GO) is most commonly prepared using the Hummers method, which consists of a multi-step synthesis. First the graphite material is oxidized to form graphite oxide and then this is exfoliated via sonication to form a single layer of material called GO. Through the oxidation process oxygenated functional groups are introduced into the basal surfaces and lateral edges of GO. On the basal surface of GO, the functional groups of epoxides and hydroxyl groups are present, whereas, the larger groups such as carboxyl and carbonyl groups form along the lateral edges. It is important to note that with the introduction of the oxygenat ed functional groups, the basal plane and lateral edges will need to adopt sp3 hybridized carbons, which results in the formation of defect regions where the à Ã¢â€š ¬-conjugated system is broken. The presence of these defects will be explored in more detail below as these areas are critical in the antibacterial properties of GO. In the literature, GO and other graphene materials have demonstrated through both physical and chemical mechanisms they have the ability to reduce bacterial cell count of both gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria1. Several pivotal studies have been conducted in order to determine the key mechanism behind the antibacterial properties of GO. Nada et.al studied the antibacterial mechanisms using Raman spectroscopy2, Zhang et.al studied the antibacterial activity using mass spectroscopy3, and Yusong et.al examined the effects of extraction of phospholipids from E-coli by graphene nanosheets4.These studies have led to the development of several mechanisms including the cutting of the membrane wall by the sharp edges of the defect sites (nanoknives), phospholipid extraction and oxidative stress. The various experiments to date regardless of experimental design demonstrated that it is not a single mechanism that is responsible for the antibacterial properties of GO but rather a combinat ion of several mechanisms that can contribute to the overall antibacterial properties. Ultimately, it is the breakdown in the cell membrane that causes intracellular leakage of vital proteins, nucleic acids, and cytoplasmic material that results in the loss of reproduction and cell death. The cutting mechanism also referred to in the literature as nanoknives is one of the most important mechanisms that lead to the antibacterial properties of GO. The sharp lateral edges of GO are able to penetrate into the cell membranes inner and outer layer. This leads to the loss of cell membrane integrity and leakage of intracellular materials such as the cytoplasm, nucleic acids, proteins and amino acids. Nada et al used a variety of techniques, such as Raman spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to observe the cellular changes (deformation or loss of cell membrane integrity) of bacteria, such as E Coli when exposed to varying concentrations of GO material. Raman spectroscopy was used to determine how E.coli reacts to an increasing concentration of GO. From the research done by Nada and team the bands with the greatest change were those of adenine (a nucleic acid) (729cm-1), the S-S stretching vibrations (490cm-1) of the disulphide bonds (found on the surface of the cell) and the amide group (found in proteins) bending vibration at 610cm-1.2 The intensity of each of these bands increased with the increase in GO concentration. This positively confirms that GO had penetrated into the cell membrane, causing the loss integrity and allowing the intracellular material such as adenine and other proteins to leak from the cell. Once this material was leaked from the cell, its vib rational absorption increase the signal in the Raman spectrum intensified. The examined the effects of GO on E. coli using SEM was used to observe the morphological changes in cells after exposure to GO. Figure 1 below, shows the morphological effects on E. coli with increasing GO concentration2. Image A represents the control of E. coli cells. In image B, E. coli was treated with low concentration of GO causing morphological changes seen by the distortion (flattening or squishing) of the rod shape. As the concentration of the GO treatment increases the sharp edges of the GO material are able to penetrate into the cell membrane (as seen in the red arrow in image c) and lead to a loss of cell membrane integrity resulting in the leakage of the intracellular material. 2 This effect was not isolated to only gram-negative bacteria but also gram-positive bacteria as well, in which the thickness of the cell membrane is different however similar results were observed. Therefore, the thickne ss of the cell membrane does not play a critical role in the nano-knife cutting mechanism as GO was able to penetrate both the inner and outer cell membrane walls. The size of the GO also plays a key role in the cutting ability of GO due to the changes in the basal plane and lateral edges. A study lead by Perreault examined how altering the size of GO changed the cell viability of E. coli. GO sheets were altered by varying the sonication time and power in order to obtain GO sizes ranging from 0.65  µm2 down to 0.01  µm2.5 Using live/dead fluorescence staining it was determined that there was no change in cell viability (%living) when the bacteria was not in contact with GO as shown in the control of figure 2.5 The green dots represents the number of colony forming units (CFU) alive and the red dots are dead CFUs. The smaller sheet size of 0.01  µm2 has significantly lower cell viability (30%) when compared to the 0.65  µm2 sheet (73%).5 This phenomenon is explained by the fact that as the size of the GO material is decreased the amount of defects in the sp2 hybridized carbons of the basal plane and edges increases. T he defects are caused by either the addition of oxygen groups or shrinkage in size that destroys a portion of the basal plane. This effect creates additional sharp edges in both the lateral edges and basal plane leading to more nanoknives that are capable of cutting through the cell membrane. This allows for increase areas of interaction with the bacterial. This was also confirmed using SEM where larger sheet sizes (0.65 µm2) showed very little deformation and almost normal cell structure whereas smaller sheets (0.01  µm2) appeared to be flattened and deformed leading to a compromised cell structure5. It is interesting to note that the amount of surface defects also plays a critical role in the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that will create oxidative stress to the cell membrane and additional loss of membrane integrity. Therefore, it is impossible to determine if only the physiochemical mechanism of cutting is the single mechanism that impacts cell viabili ty or multiple mechanisms do. In reality, with smaller GO size the loss of cell membrane integrity and intracellular leakage can be attributed to both the nano-knife effect and oxidative stress due to the increase in defects. This mechanism also has been shown to work in combination with other mechanisms such phospholipid extraction in which after cutting into the cell membrane the phospholipids are better able to be extracted by GO. This effect is due to hydrophobic attraction between the phospholipid tails and the à Ã¢â€š ¬-conjugated sp2 carbons of the basal plane. This will be discussed in further details in the later sections. GO is highly hydrophobic due to the à Ã¢â€š ¬-conjugation of the basal surface which allows it to interact with the phospholipid layer of the bacterial cell membrane. The oxygenated groups on GO provides a hydrophilic portion of the compound that is able to interact with the polar heads of the phospholipids. Yusong et al performed a detailed experiment on this and showed that extraction of the phospholipid molecules via hydrophobic interactions causes cell membrane deformation and collapse.5 There are two main mechanisms for the extraction of the phospholipids depending on the size of the GO material. With larger GO materials, the nanosheet will lie along the cell membrane causing a disruption of the phospholipid membrane; allow the GO material to embed itself into the lipophilic portions of the membrane1. For smaller GO materials, the sheet will lie perpendicular to the membrane and penetrate through the cell membrane (either partially or completely) via the nano-knife mechanism. This further supports the theory that it is not a single mechanism that allows for the antibacterial properties but a combination of several. The extraction of phospholipids occurs in several steps (see Figure 3). The first step involves a slight shifting of phospholipids due to the docking of the GO nanosheet as described by Yuesong (Image a).4 Next the phospholipid head will begin to break through the cell membrane and climb up the GO sheet (image b). This climbing effect is observed as result of the strong attractive forces between the hydrophobic regions of the basal plane and the hydrophobic tails of the phospholipids. This extraction process will continue until the GO material is covered completely with phospholipids with several layers of phospholipids climbing at the same time (image d). The phospholipids will evenly spread over the surface in such a way that the hydrophobic tails will align with the hydrophobic regions of the basal surface and the polar heads will align with the oxygenated functional groups of GO (images e and f).4 The loss of the phospholipids from the cell membrane causes a loss in membrane dens ity which weakens the cell membrane. Due to the loss of density and the penetration of the GO into the cell, cell membrane integrity is lost resulting in the leakage intracellular fluids. This effect can be seen with the aid of TEM as morphological changes are easily identified using this method of analysis (see figure 4)4. Image A represents the initial state in which no morphological changes have occurred when E-coli was treated with GO.4 Over time as the phospholipid extraction occurs, the cell membrane density will decrease as shown in images b and c seen by the Type B arrows. The last step in the process is when cell integrity is lost and the intracellular material begins to leak. This effect is also observed in the images d-f where the cells are transparent due to loss of the cytoplasm4. This confirms that the phospholipid extraction occurs with the aid of the nanoknives leading to loss in cell viability. Another group of scientist lead by Zhangs used mass spectroscopy to map the metabolites of E-coli before and after exposure to GO.3 A typical mass spectrum of E-coli without GO treatment is shown Figure 5a. The most important peaks are at m/z 306 which corresponds to glutathione (GHS), which is an antioxidant commonly found in E. coli, and the membrane phospholipids phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) and phosphatidylglycerol (PG), at approximately m/z 600-8003. As the concentration of GO increased the overall intensities of the GSH, PE and PG all decreased (see fig 5b). This aligns with the previous studies of Yusong in which the extraction of the phospholipids leads to a decrease in cell membrane density. This was clearly observed by the decrease in signal intensities of both PE and PG. In the mass spec results obtain by Zhangs team there was also a decrease in GSH intensity. GSH is a critical antioxidant found in E. coli and will act as a scavenger for any free oxygen radicals that may be present in the bacterias environment. GSH prevents the oxidative breakdown of the phospholipid membrane that can also lead to a loss of cell membrane integrity and intracellular leakage. This finding confirms the previous hypothesis that there are many mechanisms running in parallel that ultimately attribute to the overall antibacterial properties of GO. In this very example, the nano-knives are able to cut into the phospholipid membrane and start the chain reaction of phospholipid extraction. This extraction causes a decrease in phospholipid density which in parallel with the cutting of the membrane by the nanoknives and oxidative stress leads to a loss in cell membrane integrity. This loss in cell membrane integrity leads to a loss of intracellular material such cytoplasmic mate rial, nucleic acids and proteins.. As demonstrated by the mass spectrum results obtained by Zhang et al, oxidative stress occurs when there is a decrease in antioxidant concentration (such as GSH)3. The consumption of GSH occurs in the presence of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which are typically composed of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), superoxide anions (O2*), hydroxyl radical (OH*) or singlet molecular oxygen species(1O2)1. When the antioxidants (such as GSH) are depleted the ROS compounds will then cause oxidation of key lipids in the cell membrane, proteins or even nucleic acids. The formation of the ROS compounds occurs due to the very nature of GO. When graphite is oxidized to form graphite oxide, the basal plane obtains additional defects as the result of the loss of à Ã¢â€š ¬-conjugation. This loss of à Ã¢â€š ¬-conjugation occurs due to the introduction of the oxygenated functional groups such as epoxides and hydroxyl groups which creates sp3 hybridized carbons. The introduction of the sp3 carbons alters the planer geometry of the basal plane by introducing tetrahedral carbons, creating defects in the lateral edges and basal plane. Additional defects can also be introduced as mentioned in the previous section when the size of the GO material is decreased. As the size of the sheets decreases the ability of the GO to stay as a perfect hexagonal structure also diminishes as the structure gets distorted to accommodate the smaller size. The process of oxidative stress begins with the formation of ROS compounds. Oxygen is absorbed to the surface of the basal plane or lateral edges at the defects sites to form surface oxides. These surface oxides release ROS species in the presence of antioxidants as a result of a redox reaction. In the presence of GSH (an antioxidant found in E. coli), the surface oxides found on GO are reduced by an electron transfer from GSH. Another GSH molecule will then donate a proton to the ROS species, causing its reduction and subsequent release of a water molecule.5 The deprotonated GSH molecule will then react with another GSH molecule to form glutathione disulphide. If GSH is not available, the ROS species will then oxidize the lipids in the cell membrane to form as a lipid peroxide radical causing oxidative stress to the cell membrane. This oxidative stress will continue down the cell membrane until the lipid peroxide radical encounters an antioxidant bound to the cell membrane such as V itamin E. It is important to keep in mind that with an increased amount of free oxygen radicals the extent of oxidative stress increases and the overall cell integrity decreases. As mentioned earlier, the size and shape of the GO plays a key role in determine the extent of the oxidative stress. As the size of the GO material decreases from 0.065 to 0.01 µm2 the amount of surface defects increases. Again this is due to the loss of the conjugation and destruction of the basal plane. With the smaller GO material the presence of additional defects allows for the formation of many more surface oxides that can later be reduced to form ROS compounds. These ROS compounds then will continue to deplete the antioxidants and lead to further lipid peroxidation. This effect will continue until enough oxidative stress exists to cause the membrane to collapse and bacterial death to occur. Perreault and team demonstrated this effect when they examined through Raman spectroscopy and cell viability testing that the size of the GO material plays a critical role in the ability of the material to induce oxidative stress. Figure 6 shows that as the size of the sheet decreases, the amount of disorder due to the defects (D band) increases. Therefore there is a direct correlation to number of defects and the ability of GO to form ROS species that interact with GSH. This is further confirmed with the graph in figure 6a which shows the %loss of GSH decreases with the increase in GO size. Therefore it not only the nanoknives that that are influenced by the size of GO but also oxidative stress due to the adsorbed oxygen and ROS formation. As demonstrated through the various studies conducted by Nada et al, Zhang et.al, and Yusong et al the key antibacterial mechanisms of GO are cutting via nanoknives, phospholipid extraction and oxidative stress that contribute to the overall antibacterial properties of GO. The research to date indicates it is not a single mechanism that creates the antibacterial properties of GO but a combination of all factors. How much antibacterial is dependent on the physical size of GO plays and the number of defects in the basal surface and lateral edges. As the size of GO decreases a larger degree of surface defects forms. These defects play two important roles in the antimicrobial properties of GO. First, an increase in surface defects creates an increase in the number of sharp edges that causes a loss of cellular membrane integrity. Directly, the cell membrane is compromised by the penetration of the nano-knives resulting in intracellular leakage of the cytoplasm, amino acids, proteins and n ucleic acids, Indirectly, once the nano-knives cut into the cell membrane it becomes embedded through attractive force between the hydrophobic tails of the cell membranes phospholipids and basal plane promotes phospholipid extraction. This extraction causes a decrease in cell membrane density which further breaks down the membrane causing additional intracellular leakage of key nucleic acids, cytoplasm and proteins. Lastly, the increase in surface defects of the basal plane increases the presence of reactive oxygen species. These species will react with any antioxidant present in the bacterial cell depleting their levels. Once depleted or reduced, the ROS will cause oxidation of the cell membrane lipids leading to a chain reaction of oxidative stress through the cell membrane. This also will lead to a loss of cell membrane integrity and intracellular leakage of key proteins and nucleic acids responsible for cell growth and replication. Without this material the bacteria cell will di e leading to the antibacterial properties observed in GO. With the development of drug resistant bacteria, new and inventive ways to treat bacterial infections need to be explored. GO with its unique chemical and physical properties show much promise as the next antibacterial treatment. Additional studies need to be conducted to determine the cytotoxicity of GO in animals and humans in order to development new treatment therapies. Zou,X.; Zhang, L.; Wang, Z., Luo, Y. Mechanisms of the Antimicrobial Activities of Graphene Materials. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2016, 138, 2064-2077 Nada, S.S; Yi, D.K; Kim, K. Study of antibacterial mechanisms of graphene oxide using Raman spectroscopy. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 28443; doi: 10.103,srep28443 Zhang, N.; Hou, j.; Chen, S.; Xiong, C.; Liu, H.; Jin, Y.; Wang, J.; He, Q.; Zhao, R.; Nie, Z.. Rapidly probing antibacterial activity of Graphene oxide by Mass Spectrometry-based metabolite fingerprinting Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 28045; doi: 10.1038,srep28085 Yusong, T.; Lv, M.; Xiu; Huynh, T.; Zhang, M.; Castelli, M.; Liu, Z.; Huang, Q.; Fan, C.; Fang, H.; Zhou, R. Destructive extraction of phospholipids from Escherichia coli membranes by graphene nanosheets. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2013, 8, 594-601, doi:10.1038/nnano.2013.125 Perreault, F.; Fonseca de Faria, A.; Nejati, S.; Elimelech, M. Antimicrobial Properties of Graphene Oxide Nanosheets: Why Size Matters. ACS Nano. 2015, 7, 7226-7236

In Defense of Direct Perception Essay -- Philosophy Philosophical Essa

In Defense of Direct Perception ABSTRACT: My goal in this paper is to defend the claim that one can directly perceive an object without possessing any descriptive beliefs about this object. My strategy in defending this claim is to rebut three arguments that attack my view of direct perception. According to these arguments, the notion of direct perception as I construe it is objectionable since: (1) it is epistemically worthless since it leaves perceived objects uninterpreted; (2) it cannot explain how perceived objects are identified; and (3) it is ill-prepared to assign objective content to perceptual states. What is involved in the claim that one directly perceives an object? The notion of direct perception that I propose to defend in this paper is this: that one 'directly' perceives an object if one's perception of this object is not mediated by beliefs. Put another way, a 'direct' perceiver does not believe anything about an object in (directly) perceiving it. On this construal of the notion of direct perception, it follows that if one directly perceives an object, one does not describe this object; for any description of an object is expressed as a belief, and direct perceptions do not involve beliefs. The direct perceiver, I claim, does not (and indeed may be completely unable to) give a description of the perceived object, without this lack (or inability) detracting from the fact that the object is directly perceived. In defending this view of direct perception, we need to become clearer on how it is possible for a belief to mediate one's perception of an object. There are (at least) two ways in which this can occur. Here's the first. A belief can be said to mediate one's perception of an object if a belief se... ...ld, itself, be an interpretation—but then we've simply displaced the problem one step, for the question will arise again with this interpretation, to wit, what is its object. Nor could the object of an interpretation simply be what satisfies the interpretation (or, put another way, whatever satisfies the descriptive beliefs associated with a perception) for an object could satisfy this interpretation, without being the de facto object of perception. Indeed, an object of indirect perception might not, in actuality, even satisfy one's associated descriptive beliefs—and still it will be indirectly perceived. Thus, the object of an indirect perception must be what is provided by a direct perception—what other object could be a candidate? That is, the notion of an indirect perception relies on a prior notion of a direct perception, and is indeed inconceivable without it.

The Life of a Slave :: essays research papers

My name is Shaniqua and I am a sixteen-year-old girl from Mali, Africa. Everyone was nice back in my village. I lived at home with my mother, father, and my younger brother, Jamal. Life back home was great. I would help my mother around the house and take care of my little brother Jamal. Jamal and I would help mama clean and cook. I would also help my mother make clothes to sell at the market. On certain days I would go to the market to sell the clothes my mother and I made. My mother and I would take turns going to the market. Sometimes in the summer I would go to the river with my best friend. I’m the type of person that would help someone if they were in trouble. I always treated people fair. I was very happy at home. The village that I lived in was always busy; people always had something to do. There was never a dull moment in my village. We all got along in the village. It was a nice summer day so my friend and I decided to take a walk to the river and cool off. As we approached the river some strange looking men popped out from behind the bushes and grabbed us. I had never seen someone like that before; they were pale and white. They had yellow hair and blue eyes. The men shackled us to one another and forced us to walk to where there were many other Africans in a cage. I was crying and screaming but they didn’t care. I tried to get away and they hit me with a whip so hard across my back that it bled. I had no chouse but to follow them to the coast. As I was walking I saw people from my village being whipped and beaten. They were getting whipped so bad chunks of their skin were falling on the floor. There was blood gushing from their open flesh. People are screaming for help but there’s no one to help them. Some man that was shackled tried to escape, he failed. The white men killed him. As we got to the coast there were huge wooden boats waiting for us. They shoved us into the boat, then they through us into some place below decks. We are so close together we can hardly move. I see people getting thrown off the ship left and right.

Married To Be Alone? Essay -- essays research papers

Married To Be Alone? Although marriage is the symbol of two lives ¡Ã‚ ¦ union, in the real world many people experience it in the opposite way. Gloria Steinem says:  ¡Ã‚ §The surest way to be alone is to get married. ¡Ã‚ ¨ In  ¡Ã‚ §The Story of an Hour ¡Ã‚ ¨ by Kate Chopin, we can certainly realize how well the author describes the loneliness of a marriage. There is another short story that also reflects the same point of view in a relationship; it is William Faulkner ¡Ã‚ ¦s  ¡Ã‚ §A Rose for Emily. ¡Ã‚ ¨ Both works serve as strong evidence for Gloria Steinem ¡Ã‚ ¦s opinion. In  ¡Ã‚ §The Story of an Hour ¡Ã‚ ¨ Chopin implies an idea of that Mrs. Mallard lives as a prisoner. Maybe it is because she grew up in a society in which women used to be properties of men, she has not noticed that fact until she receives her husband ¡Ã‚ ¦s death news. Marriage did not really unify emotionally her life with her husband ¡Ã‚ ¦s. This can be seen in the lines,  ¡Ã‚ §And yet she had loved him  ¡V sometimes. Often she had not ¡Ã‚ ¨ (8). She lived with this man, saw him everyday, slept by his side every night, but she did not even love him. Is that a how a relationship between a couple supposed to be? All those years she spent with her husband were as alone as being a prisoner; isn ¡Ã‚ ¦t that sad? But everything is solved (she thought so), as Mr. Mallard is dead, at last she can be liberated from that prison,  ¡Ã‚ §Free! Body and soul free ¡Ã‚ ¨ (8). This is not a usual expression of a woman whose husband has just died; here we can understand how alon e she has bee...

Linear Regression

Scatter Plots Linear regression Is a crucial tool In Identifying and defining key elements influencing data. Essentially, the researcher is using past data to predict future direction. Regression allows you to dissect and further investigate how certain variables affect your potential output. Once data has been received this information can be used to help predict future results. Regression is a form of forecasting that determines the value of an element on a particular situation. Linear regression allows us to create formulas to define the effects of a variable.Data analysis Is an Important concept In Improving business results. There Is no reason why we would not use the data to help forecast for the future. The information is available and reliable and will explain the breakdown of the entire business process. Break Even Calculations Break-even calculations are used to denote a firm's capital structure, to the extent to which fixed Income securities, debt and preferred stock, are used. The operating leverage can be depicted by graphs to demonstrate relevant probability distributions.Break even points are determined by the quantity measurement of operating income (BIT) being equal to zero, which applies that sales revenues are equal to costs. Break-even analysis, from an operational perspective focuses on the choice of processes, which Implies that the two processes have equal costs for a specific level of volume, referred to as the break-even point. To determine how much volume of business a company must do to break-even can be stated in either monetary units or product unit.The linear model that is utilized to conceptualize the processes denotes that the selling price per unit is constant. In other words the banks fixed costs are the predetermined Interest rates, which Is what the banks financial business depends upon. The variable costs remain constant, which refers to costs for labor. Fixed costs remain constant, which are the operation costs that do not change, such as facility operation costs, insurance and taxes on the facility, senior management salaries, and other overhead expenses.How Does this affect our business? If we go back to the topics we discussed during week two, our business, Diamond Banking, was Interested In the correlation between customer account balances and the number of ATM transactions occurring. Business executives for the company should be interested in using both Linear regression models and break even calculations to determine deferent aspects of the business model. We want to use linear regression to compare past data and net profit with current usage and profits gained.As with every business, we want to make sure that the amount of money we put into operating and servicing the Tam's does not amount to more than the profit we receive from consumers using them. This is where break even calculations would be useful. There are many more examples that we could use in our business practices, both everyday use s, and for yearly comparisons. Graphs, charts and equations models are essential in monitoring and understanding past business successes and failures, and must be used both in current and future annihilation of the business model. Linear Regression Introduction – DescriptionLinear regression is a basic linear approach used for predictive analysis. It is used to model the relationship between one dependant variable y and one or more independent variable denoted X. It is used to examine two things which are: Whether a set of predictor variables can predict an outcome (dependant) variable. To identify which variables are significant predictors of the outcome variable and how they impact the outcome variable. Simple linear regression is used to examine the relationship between a quantitative outcome (dependant) and a single explanatory (independent) variable. The formula is given by y=?_0+?_1 x+? Where y = estimated dependent, response, outcome variable score, ?_0 = constant, and it estimates the y intercept ?_1 = regression coefficient, and it estimates the slope x= score on the independent, predictor, or explanatory variable. ?= is the unexplained, random, or error component. We can get the values of x and y from a sample and the parameters ?_0 and ?_1 are estimated by using the method of least squares or another method. The resulting estimate of the model is given by y ?=b_0+b_1 xThe symbol y ? – pronounced y hat – refers to the predicted values of the outcome variable y that are associated with values ofx, given the linear model. Since linear regression models depend linearly on their unknown parameters they are easier to fit than models which are not linearly related to their parameters.Given n observations pairs (x_1,y_1),(x_2,y_2 ),†¦,(x_n,y_n), the predicted response on the ith observation is given by y ?_i=b_0+b_1 x_iAnd the random error component will be given by?_i=y_i-y ?_iA line that fits the data â€Å"best† will be one for which the random errors are as small as possible in some overall sense and this is achieved through least squares. The method of least squares chooses the values forb_0, and b_1 to minimize the sum of squared errors.The Sum of Squares Errors (SSE) is given by the following formulaSSE=?_(i=1)^n(y_i-y ?_i)?^2=?_(i=1)^n(y-b_0-b_1 x)?^2 ?The SSE should be kept as minimal as possible in order to get the line of best fit. If the blue line is a regression line (line of best fit) the observations marked in red are assumed to have come as a result of random deviations – marked in green – from the underlying relationship between the response variable (y) and the predictor variable (x). Source: Wikipedia The regression parameters that give minimum error variance are: b_1=(xy-nx ?y ? ?)/(x^2-nx ?^2 ?) and b_0=y ?-b_1 x ?Where,x ?=1/n ?_(i=1)^n?x_i y ?=1/n ?_(i=1)^n?y_i xy=?_(i=1)^n?x_i y_ix^2 =?_(i=1)^nx_i?^2 History of Simple Linear Regression Models Regression through the use of method of least squares was first published by Adrien-Marie Legendre in 1805 in his paper â€Å"New Methods for Determination of the Orbits of Comets†. In 1809 another mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss published method of least squares in his treatise, â€Å"Theory of the Motion of the Heavenly Bodies Moving About the Sun in Conic Sections,† even though Gauss claimed to have discovered it before Legendre. Both mathematicians used least squares in astronomical observations, to determine the orbits of comets and other planets about the Sun and also relative to the earth. They used the method of least squares to predict the position of comets, based on measurements of the comets' previous position. Gauss published a development of the least squares which included the Gauss Markov theorem. The first person to use the term â€Å"regression† was Francis Galton in the 1870s. He used regression to explain a biological phenomenon how â€Å"co-related† trees were to their parents. His findings were published in his 1886 paper Regression Towards Mediocrity in Hereditary Stature. Karl Pearson, Galton's colleague was the first to link regression with the method of least squares. He discovered that if you plotted the height of parents on the x-axis and their children on the y-axis, resulted in a line of best fit with a slope less than one when using least squares. R. A. Fisher a twentieth century mathematician combined the methods of Gauss and Pearson to develop regression methods as we know it today. Through Fisher's work, regression analysis is no longer limited to prediction and understanding correlations, but also used to determine the relationship between a factor and an outcome. Over the years regression has developed and it now includes logistic regression, non-parametric regression, Bayesian regression and regression that incorporates regularisation. Regression was used for manageable data sets but through technology and computerisation regression can be done on a large data set in less than a second. Uses of Simple Linear Regression ModelSimple linear regression is a model that can determine the relationship between two variables and how one can impact the other. Once the relationship has been determine and its strength verified a simple linear regression can be used to forecast the dependant variable when an independent variable changes. It can be used to predict trends and future values of a phenomenon. The uses of simple linear regression do overlap in practice. Simple linear regression is used across many fields of study and economy, these include – but not limited to – the following: In business and economics it can be used to determine the effect of marketing and pricing on the sales of a product. It can also be used to predict the consumer behaviour in relation to some changes in the different variables. In car sales industry it can be used to predict the car selling price given the odometer reading for used cars. In agriculture it can be used to predict the yield of crop against the amount of rainfall received in a particular season. In Crime Data Mining it can used predict the crime rate of a provinces based on drug usage, human trafficking, etc. Sports journalist and analysts also use regression to predict future results.These are the few applications where simple linear regression can be used but the list is endless. Generally it can be used to simplify, explain and predict many aspects in life. Linear Regression Simple linear regression is the statistic method used to make summary of and provide the association between variables that are continues and quantitative ,basically it deals with two measures that describes how strong the linear relationship we can compute in data .Simple linear regression consist of one variable known as the predictor variable and the other variable denote y known as response variable . It is expected that when we talk of simple linear regression to touch on deterministic relationship and statistical relationship, the concept of least mean square .the interpretation of the b0 and b1 that they are used to interpret the estimate regression . There is also what is known as the population regression line and the estimate regression line .This linearity is measured using the correlation coefficient (r), that can be -1,0,1. The strength of the association is determined from the value of r .( https://onlinecourses.science.psu.edu/stat501/node/250). History of simple linear regression Karl Pearson established a demanding treatment of Applied statistical measure known as Pearson Product Moment Correlation .This come from the thought of Sir Francis Galton ,who had the idea of the modern notions of correlation and regression ,Sir Galton contributed in science of Biology ,psychology and Applied statistics . It was seen that Sir Galton is fascinated with genetics and heredity provided the initial inspiration that led to regression and Pearson Product Moment Correlation .The thought that encouraged the advance of the Pearson Product Moment Correlation began with vexing problem of heredity to understand how closely features of generation of living things exhibited in the next generation. Sir Galton took the approach of using the sweet pea to check the characteristic similarities. ( Bravais, A. (1846). The use of sweet pea was motivated by the fact that it is self- fertilize ,daughter plants shows differences in genetics from mother with-out the use of the second parent that will lead to statistical problem of assessing the genetic combination for both parents .The first insight came about regression came from two dimensional diagram plotting the size independent being the mother peas and the dependent being the daughter peas. He used this representation of data to show what statisticians call it regression today ,from his plot he realised that the median weight of daughter seeds from a particular size of mother seed approximately described a straight line with positive slope less than 1. â€Å"Thus he naturally reached a straight regression line ,and the constant variability for all arrays of character for a given character of second .It was ,perhaps best for the progress of the correlational calculus that this simple special case should promulgated first. It so simply grabbed by the beginner (Pearson 1930,p.5). Then it was later generalised to more complex way that is called the multiple regression. Galton, F. (1894),Importance of linear regressionStatistics usually uses the term linear regression in interpretation of data association of a particular survey, research and experiment. The linear relationship is used in modelling .The modelling of one explanatory variable x and response variable y will require the use of simple linear regression approach .The simple linear regression is said to be broadly useful in methodology and the practical application. This method on simple linear regression model is not used in statistics only but it is applied in many biological, social science and environmental research. The simple linear regression is worth importance because it gives indication of what is to be expected, mostly in monitoring and amendable purposes involved on some disciplines(April 20, 2011 , plaza ,).Description of linear regression The simple linear regression model is described by Y=(?0 + ?1 +E), this is the mathematical way of showing the simple linear regression with labelled x and y .This equation gives us a clear idea on how x is associated to y, there is also an error term shown by E. The term E is used to justification for inconsistency in y, that we can be able to detect it by the use of linear regression to give us the amount of association of the two variables x and y .Then we have the parameters that are use to represent the population (?0 + ?1x) .We then have the model given by E(y)= (?0 + ?1x), the ?0 being the intercept and ?1 being the slope of y ,the mean of y at the x values is E(y) . The hypothesis is assumed is we assume that there is a linear association between the two variables ,that being our H0 and H1 we assume that there is no linear relationship between H0 and H1. Background of simple linear regression Galton used descriptive statistics in order for him to be able to generalise his work of different heredity problems .The needed opportunity to conclude the process of analysing these data, he realised that if the degree of association between variables was held constant,then the slope of the regression line could be described if variability of the two measure were known . Galton assumed he estimated a single heredity constant that was generalised to multiple inherited characteristics . He was wondering why, if such a constant existed ,the observed slopes in the plot of parent child varied too much over these characteristics .He realise variation in variability amongst the generations, he attained at the idea that the variation in regression slope he obtained were solely due to variation in variability between the various set of measurements . In resent terms ,the principal this principal can be illustrated by assuming a constant correlation coefficient but varying the standard deviations of the two variables involved . On his plot he found out that the correlation in each data set. He then observe three data sets ,on data set one he realised that the standard deviation of Y is the same as that of X , on data set two standard deviation of Y is less than that of X ,third data set standard deviation of Y is great than that of X . The correlation remain constant for three sets of data even though the slope of the line changes as an outcome of the differences in variability between the two variables.The rudimentary regression equation y=r(Sy / Sx)x to describe the relationship between his paired variables .He the used an estimated value of r , because he had no knowledge of calculating it The (Sy /Sx) expression was a correction factor that helped to adjust the slope according to the variability of measures .He also realised that the ratio of variability of the two measures was the key factor in determining the slope of the regression line . The uses of simple linear regression Straight relapse is a typical Statistical Data Analysis strategy. It is utilized to decide the degree to which there is a direct connection between a needy variable and at least one free factors. There are two sorts of straight relapse, basic direct relapse and different straight relapse. In straightforward direct relapse a solitary autonomous variable is utilized to anticipate the estimation of a needy variable. In numerous straight relapse at least two free factors are utilized to anticipate the estimation of a needy variable. The contrast between the two is the quantity of free factors. In the two cases there is just a solitary ward variable The needy variable must be estimated on a nonstop estimation scale (e.g. 0-100 test score) and the free variable(s) can be estimated on either an all out (e.g. male versus female) or consistent estimation scale. There are a few different suppositions that the information must full fill keeping in mind the end goal to meet all requirements for straight relapse. Basic straight relapse is like connection in that the reason for existing is to gauge to what degree there is a direct connection between two factors. The real contrast between the two is that relationship sees no difference amongst autonomous and subordinate factors while direct relapse does. Specifically, the reason for direct relapse is to â€Å"anticipate† the estimation of the reliant variable in light of the estimations of at least one free factors. When you procure me to do the measurable investigation for your exposition, I ensure that I will utilize the fitting factual tests for your thesis comes about section. I can perform basically any standard measurable examination (utilizing SPSS) and I give on ¬ going factual help to guarantee that you completely see the greater part of the measurements that I regression.

A world without laws

Now, Imagine a world without any laws. No rules, no commands and Just your rules to be followed. It's also crazy Isn't To have a world without any laws means not only to be free but also to be In a world with chaos. For example, the traffic rules, Without any traffic rules, how can we determine whether we are on the go signal or not? Can you Imagine It? A car being smashed by another?What result would that supposed to be? Focuses! What else? It's accidents. Yes I can say that every person has his/her rights to wish for his/her freedom however, this freedom should be limited. In this case, I can also say that even though they can do anything what he/she wishes for, he/she can never wish what a government wishes to have in its institution, to have peace and order. Yet, people wish for their own interest and it doesn't help each other. Imagine the people peeing in different places, different streets? Or how about people who throws garbage anywhere? Do you think it's healthy?A big NO for me because these things exults into floods, typhoons and other natural calamities being held not constant or even worse deceases.. This makes the lives of others to be in danger. What about buildings making their goods at higher price or shall we say doing the act of overpricing? Is it helpful to us? I say, no. How can people with little income buy food with too expensive goods? How can they live their lives without buying it? The tendency would be robbery. They will be forced to rob food shops because they can't afford a high price of goods because they are poor.They will be forced and in such ease would make it a hobby because of that high prices of goods. Imagine the world without any law enforcers; do you think we can live peacefully? To those who have lost their innocent member of the family, do you think without the law enforcers, can they claim their right for injustice? No they can't. What about drugs, a world full of dangerous drugs, do you think it molds people to what ou r present professionals are doing right know? Again, I think not. These things we can imagine if we create a world without laws.A world full of accidents, harassment and such cases that a man can o without making himself or herself put Into Jail. Are you willing to have a world Like that? I guess not. Therefore, Imagine a world with laws. Laws that protects human life, a law that makes a person free with Its Limits, Isn't It wonderful? And Peaceful? We need laws to guide us, we need them because we do. Live a world with laws to be guided, secured and to be protected. A world without laws By Paraphrases Imagine a world without any laws. No rules, no commands and in fact we only follow rules of our own. Try to think of it. Fun! Isn't it?Now, imagine a world without any laws. No rules, no commands and Just your rules to be followed. It's also crazy isn't To have a world without any laws means not only to be free but also to be in a determine whether we are on the go signal or not? Can you imagine it? A car being they claim their right for injustice? No they can't. What about drugs, a world full of do without making himself or herself put into Jail. Are you willing to have a world like that? I guess not. Therefore, imagine a world with laws. Laws that protects human life, a law that makes a person free with its limits, isn't it wonderful? And Peaceful?